Articles:
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THE ORIGIN OF THE TROMBONE by Heinrich Besseler
Translated by Bob Gillespie
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Practice Suggestions for Impending
Auditions and Contests
The
trombone is the main instrument of the Netherlander Epoch, appearing in
European music in the fifteenth century. The exact time and place of its origin
are not known.
The
trombone is the only modern instrument that did not go through essential
(structured) development, and still uses the same u-joint (slide) mechanics
shown in the first pictures of the trombones of the fourteenth century. Where
did this u-joint come from? If one examines it closely, one will see that it is
an astounding invention of genius. Which instrument-builder may have invented
it, and what caused him to take such a step?
The instrumental history of the
time possesses only sparse data. The oldest proof of the existence of the
trombone, found by Kurt Sachs, is an English Document written in 1495, and a
painting of Matteo di
Giovanni.
New research has begun with the
discovery of Phillipino Lippi’s
“Himmel fahrt Maria” found
in S.Maria sopa.Minerva zu Rom (1489-93).The presentation ,
the so called Adimari-Hochzeit
(about 1450) is damaged and presents no proof of the existence of the trombone.
The
middle-European name posaune
(Ndl. bazuin, Danish basun, Polish puzon, Tschoslovakian pozoun), originates from busune, which equals busine,
originating from the Latin bucina which becomes buisine.
The
Italian word trombone originates from
a Germanic word (Old German, trompa, North German, trumba, which stays the same, with the addition of a
long slide). These names are understandable, since they come from the word trumpet,
which is one half the size of trombone, but does not refer to the type of
playing which was performed.
In
the Western European group the French word saqueboute evolves quite
differently (English-sackbut,
Spanish-sacabuche,
Portuguese-sacabupa). Sachs offered an older philosophical opinion
naming the Spanish word sacabuche,
which was proven to exist about 1500 and had a slide inside a slide. This
seemed to prove the existence of the trombone prior to the sixteenth century.
Although not satisfactory proof, this is the only explanation why a Spanish
word should be the name for the instrument in all of the Western European
countries. The best source for proof of existence is to check the music of the
time.
There
is still, at present, confusion and lack of clarity about the origin of the
trombone which doesn’t allow a justifiable conclusion concerning its place in
society and the church. One remembers the series of woodcuts by the Emperor Maximillian 1 ‘Triumph” (about 1516) on which the trombone
participates not only in sacred music, but also is shown in a band, mounted on
horseback which has five trombones
It
is not surprising that research does not bring clarity concerning the
trombone’s origins and that information about its beginnings comes in a
round-about way.
My
opinion is that a new element in instrument construction like the U-joint
(slide) must be justified by musical examination. It would be impossible to
explain the development of European instruments or instrumentation by a chain of
mere chances. If so, experiments and small improvements would have taken place
by the process of elimination (trial and error). Every technical element of
change in the construction of instruments must have come from musical needs
which gave direction to creative imagination. So, we search for the musical
reasons for the existence of the trombone in the fifteenth century. Clues are
in manuscripts, iconography, and documents about musicians. This is the way to
get clarity of views on this point.
It
is known that the trumpet was brought, as a trophy, by the Crusaders, after
they conquered the Turks. Since that time it has existed, in
First,
we have to know when the knightly trumpeters converted their domain to figural
music, i.e. polyphony, and developed the slide, which caused the origination of
the trombone. For knightly trumpeters, not free of restrictions, the addition
of slides to their trumpets came later. The second question refers to the
instrument. Although the instrument used in the 15th century was
probably a tenor trombone, its range is much greater than the music
(polyphonic) which was written 1400, it would have been impossible to play the
bass parts without a slide When, and in which form , musically, the slide was
established will have to be observed.
One
main musical event of the 15th century was the use of a
slide-instrument, in the lower range, of the masses by Ockeghem
and his contemporaries. The unique effect of the overtones of the early art is
based on the alto-tenor character of the parts which seldom went below “middle
c.”
The
heavenly quality and earthly fullness of Ockeghem’s
music almost makes the bass the most important part. In his five part motet Intemerata dei mater, to
name only one, the lower part goes down to “ D “, and in two places to “ C .”
It is only a guess, but one is tempted to say that these are trombone parts;
however there is no proof. There are far too many guesses concerning the vocal
lines of such music. Arnold Shering has,
unfortunately, visualized, but not explained, the use of the instrument.
Supposedly it was used latterly by Dufay in his
latter years in Cambrai and in Ockeghem’s
main period in
If
one looks for music to justify the origination of the trombone, it must be of
the older type. The most important reason for the improvement of an instrument
is in cases where the player had to originally play pieces by himself,
independent of a singer. Usually, however, one played as accompaniment to a
chorus or singer. This can be said with some certainty since in some polyphony
there were parts written without words, but at the same time were melodic.
Therewith we arrive at the 15th century and we must examine existing
materials for clues as to the trombone’s existence.
The
data which was mentioned in the beginning about the 15th century
must be complimented (expanded). Particularly important is De inventione et usu
musicae written between 1480-87 (invention in
relation to musical use). Unfortunately part of this paper is lost, but Book
III still exists. In chapter 8 the shawm is referred
to”….ea tuba quam
superius tromponem ab italis et saque
boute a gallicis appellari diximus.”
?
Tinctoris therefore knew the slide by the French name” sacque boute.” It
appears earlier in the Burgundy Chronicle
by Oliver de la Marche. It described the marriage of
Karl des Kuhnen to Marguerite of York in Brugge in 1468 “………..et pour mieulx festoyer la compaignie (mon seigneur de Bourgoingne) demande ses haultz
menestriers et tantost furent les quatre fenestres ouvertes, et par la saillirent trios chevres et ung boue, moultbien
et vivement faictz. Le boue jouoit d’une
trompette saicqueboute , et les trios chevres jouoient de schalmayes; et en
Olivier
de la Marche was Maitre d’ Hotel and Captaine des gardes at the court
of Karl dem Kunen,
therefore his chronicle is probably quite accurate. This gives us evidence that
in the year 1468 at the Court of Burgundy the slide trombone went under the
name of trumpette saicqueboute .
What does this word mean and does it
really come from the Spanish word sacabuche?
The negative aspect of this origin
is that the word appears in the 14th century. It was, at that time,
understood that a saiqueboute
was a barbed spear which was used in battle against riders on horseback. The purpose
of this weapon was to hook the rider and pull him forward (saquer), then to push him from his horse
(bouter).
In the imperative the word actually means, hook, pull-push, spear. This
picturesque expression can only be related to the trombone. Perhaps the
noblemen of the courts identified it with the hook spear (saiqueboute) with which they were
familiar. In any case, it was only a nickname, because the instrument was
called trompette
and saiqueboute
in 1468 (pull-push or draw-push trompette).Later saiqueboute was
used alone and added to the development of the name posaune.
This now gives us an explanation of
why all of
If one examines the records of the
Burgundy Court the expression saqueboute was not used. Players were called trompette or menestrel by order
of rank. Generally one thinks of them as hauts menestrels, but usually they were called
only menestrals. They were classified as players of
loud blowing instruments.
Last comes the French “joueurs des bas instruments, the
representatives of the “quiet art” sometimes named after the lute or harp.
Especially important is trompette des menestrals,
this means “minstrel trumpeters” who were superior to other trumpeters and the
rank given was “trumpetter.”
The minstrel trumpeters worked with chalemais and bombardes. Obviously the players at the Burgundy Court from
approximately 1421-1468 acquired trombones. With the question of the trombone’s
origin solved, we know that a large trumpet evolved out of the world of the
knights and entered the domain of polyphonic art music. The development of the trumpette menestrals
however remains unsolved and should be researched. We do not know whether the
instruments at the Burgundy Court were the first of there kind, however the
domain of the trumpette menestrels is well established (the assumption must be
made that these instruments previously existed since there is no mention of
instruments being made at the Court-B.G.).
Now that we know the conditions of
the leading court of the 15th century, we can look at the manuscripts.
They often contain remarks about trumpet and trumpet-like instruments,
therefore they must be studied. As a rule the language of the manuscripts is
Latin. In Tinctoris’ time the Latin term tuba was used for trombone. It was also
called trompetta,
trompecta, or trumpetta,
and obviously the Latin version of the French name trompette.
This
is the only deviation from Latin in the Chanson
Manuscript Esc. in Burgandy. This is a great
honor for the menestral trumpeters of the Duke. Much
distinction is given to the trumpet when one sees the duet Hor libste frau (Here, Lovely, Dearest Woman) which comes from the Cloister of Mondsee in the Sporl-Lieberbuch
(Vienna2856).
In the previous chart the names tuba, trumpetta,
or trampette belong
to the first half of the 15th century, but they are not a good
reference. In the
These
instrumental sounds often recalled animal sounds and related beliebtes themes.
Perhaps
the tuba pieces of the Strasburg Manuscript were not played on
the trumpet, but on the trombone (“ad modum tubae”).
If one accepts this possibility then
one must closely observe the well known Gloria
ad modum tubae by Dufay, in which there is a fanfare and ostinato in the lower voices.
This is the oldest known manuscript that has the notation ad modum tube in the tenor and contra
tenor. Francois, Grossin, and Arnold de Lantins in their works do not make any kind of explanation,
only the index of AO gives the explanation” quad
dicitur trumpeta” (the
two accompanying instruments are restricted to the tones of the natural trumpet
in C.
The same happens in a Gloria by an anonymous composer Tr 90, 910. There is no remark, therefore
on our chart, and no preference, however at times the music goes above natural
tones. Shering’s comments about the piece are not
proven.
In order to further probe the
question of the origin of the trombone one must be very strict. Only seven
pieces on the chart are written for specified instruments: tuba, trompetta, and trumpette.
These names indicate specified instrumentation. There are believed to be only
four completed compositions by Grossin which are mass
cycles that include trumpet. There is also the introitus to a motet by Johannes Franchois and that of a Gloria
by Arnold de Lantins, and finally the trumpet is
found in a Rondeau-J’ ayme bien by Pierre
Fontaine. This was previously mentioned in connection with the Court of
Burgundy. The six sacred pieces are not only in Italian manuscripts BL and AO but because of the required
performance techniques and sound influences one immediately recognizes
information found in early writing on Italian historical trombone playing.
Previous documents about the trombone have been scholastic in nature, however
examining the music itself gives a much better explanation when exploring the
origin of the trombone.
The introductions of the works by
Johannes Francois and Arnold de Lantins both contain discant cannons which are supported by instrumental basses,
named trompetta
or tuba.
The
similarity in the movement of the music to the 13th century caccia outlines
the connection between the times. Also, Dufay’s Gloria ad modum
tuba has an instrumental bass which is only a fanfare, but is similar to a discant cannon.
The Trumpette Mass by Grossin does not use a cannon,
but makes movement alternatively with two different categories of sound.
Group-1-two discants with trumpetta and Group 1I-usual
manner with bass line without text, tenor and contra tenor normal.
Building
the mass cycle in this is Italian and not found in the North.
Grossin’s Trompetta Mass is one of the earliest ordinary
compositions of the 15th century (1425-1430).At the same time there
were also pieces by Johannes and Arnold de Lantins.
The musical tradition that was created will be analyzed at a later time.
Planning is one of the main factors
on the road to success. He who does not plan-plans to fail.
Minimum practice must be three hours per day-including breaks.
A.
Start with a good, well rounded warm-up. Include all ranges and as many technical problems as possible.
RECRUITMENT AND DERECRUITMENT OF
THE MUSCLES OF THE
EMBOUCHURE
Research records from the functions
of the Vastus Lateralis, Rectus Femoris, and Vastus Medials (very large
muscles) show that the stretch reflex after the completion of a maximum derecruitment of these muscles is less than 0.1 of a
second.
The muscles of the face including
the orbicularis oris
(circular muscle around the mouth) and those connected to it are small and have
even quicker recovery times than the larger groups. It is therefore possible to
recharge and rest the embouchure in approximately 0.5 or one fiftieth of a
second. This is accomplished by taking the pressure off of the lip and pulling
the mouthpiece away during the millisecond when the muscles are recharging. The
speed of this process is so great that embouchure settings should not be
radically disturbed. With correct forethought it is therefore possible to play
for long periods of time with relaxed and rested facial muscles.
Muscle reflex contraction + removal
of force = reflex contraction of the same muscle = dynamic stretch to return to
normal length. Dynamic stretch reflex is over in a fraction of a second. 0.3 secs & 0.6 secs. At extremes
average is 0.16 secs.
Although, until the present time, this
phenomenon, has not previously been written about in these terms, the great
horn player Phillip Farkus was certainly aware of it
when he had the player remove the mouthpiece from the lips during rests in
daily warm-up routines. Also Arban refers to this
when he writes about resting while playing, in his explanation before the
Fourteen Characteristic Studies in the last part of his book. The object is to
always have a rested embouchure. With correct practice this is possible 99% of
the time.
Bob Gillespie
Research was done at the CSIR in
Pretoria, Republic of South Africa.